Origin And amelioration Of advice And Counseling institution In Tanzanian Schools

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1.0. Overview

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1.1. Background and History of advice and Counseling in general in School convention and other setting

The history of school counseling formally started at the turn of the twentieth century, although a case can be made for tracing the foundations of counseling and advice principles to ancient Greece and Rome with the philosophical teachings of Plato and Aristotle. There is also evidence to argue that some of the techniques and skills of modern-day advice counselors were practiced by Catholic priests in the middle ages, as can be seen by the dedication to the understanding of confidentiality within the confessional. Near the end of the sixteenth century, one of the first texts about occupation options appeared: The Universal Plaza of All the Professions of the World, (1626) written by Tomaso Garzoni quoted in Guez, W. & Allen, J. (2000). Nevertheless, formal advice programs using specialized textbooks did not start until the turn of the twentieth century.

Counseling is a understanding that has existed for a long time in Tanzania. We have sought straight through the ages to understand ourselves, offer counsel and organize our potential, come to be aware of opportunities and, in general, help ourselves in ways related with formal advice practice. In most communities, there has been, and there still is, a deeply embedded conviction that, under proper conditions, citizen can help others with their problems. Some citizen help others find ways of dealing with, solving, or transcending problems as Nwoye, (2009) prescribed in his writings. In schools, presently if the collaboration in the middle of teachers and students is good, students learn in a practical way. Young citizen organize degrees of freedom in their lives as they come to be aware of options and take advantage of them. At its best, helping should enable citizen to throw off chains and manage life situations effectively. Unprecedented economic and group changes have, over the years, changed the ways in which we manage our lives. Consequently, not all the lessons of the past can effectively deal with the challenges of modern times. Effective counseling, especially in institutions of learning has now come to be important. Boys and girls, and young men and women, need to be guided in the relationships in the middle of condition and the environment, earning skills, knowledge, and attitudes that lead to success and failure in life. The need for counseling has come to be supreme in order to promote the well-being of the child. Effective advice and counseling should help to heighten the self-image of young citizen and facilitate achievement in life tasks. Counseling should empower girls and boys to share fully in, and advantage from, the economic and group development of the nation.

2.0. Definitions of Concepts

2.1. Guidance

Guidance is an act of showing the way for some people, like adolescents, who cannot find the right path. It is directing, pointing, important and accompanying. advice is saying "Yes" to person who is request for help. It is saying "Yes" to an invitation of person who wants a temporary companion along life's way.

Guidance is giving directions to the lonely, confused, unloved, the suffering, the sick and the lost. It is pointing to some possibilities of thinking, feeling and acting. It is important the person psychologically, emotionally and even spiritually to some newer ways of meaningful living. It is accompanying those who are fearful and uncertain, those who need person along the rugged path of life's journey.

From an objective point of view, advice is part and parcel of the counseling profession. It is called directive counseling. High school and even college students need advice when they are unsure of what choices to make or what directions to take. The advice advisor "opens up" a world of choices for these persons for them to choose from. It is like presenting the universe when all that a person sees is the lonely planet earth. The advice advisor enlarges and widens the horizon of citizen who sees only a narrow path or a concealed view of that path. Thus, the focus is on possibilities and choices.

Usually, advice occurs in schools. High school and college students avail of advice and counseling services in their school. More often, young citizen are unsure of what to do, how to react or respond, and how to act in definite choices. When this occurs, they need person older, wiser and more experienced to show them the way, to guide them. This is the role of the advice advisor to extend aid when important to those who are confused, uncertain, and needing advice. However, some adults may need advice too.

2.2. Counseling:

Counseling is guiding and more. It is a way of medical hurts. It is both a science and an art. It is a science because to offer counsel, advice or assistance, the advisor must have the knowledge of the basic principles and techniques of counseling. The advisor must be able to use any of these basic principles and techniques as paradigms in order for him to counsel well. However, it is not sufficient to use know these basic principles and techniques. The other important aspect is for the advisor to know how to counsel-the art of counseling. This aspect considers counseling as a relationship, as a sharing of life, in the hope that the person who is hurting will be healed. As a relationship, counseling involves the physical, emotional, and psychical or spiritual dimensions. The advisor must have the ability to quote to the counselee in an appropriate corporeal manner without being too intimate or too close for comfort or being too distant or aloof. The emotional size in counseling includes empathy, sensitivity and the ability to interpret non-verbal clues of the counselee in order to understand unresolved complexes or pent-up feelings. The psychical or spiritual size embraces the counselee's "soul-content"---what lies inside. This is what is called the interiority of the person. The advisor must have the gift or grace of catching a perceive of the interior world of the person, particularly his spiritual condition, for this is very important in medical the person's hurts.

2.3. Other Definitions of the Concepts

Biswalo (1996) defines advice as a term used to denote the process of helping an private to gain self comprehension and self direction (self decision-making) so that he can adjust maximally to his home, school or society environment. This process, however, depends on counseling. He also defines counseling as a process of helping an private to accept and use information and advice so that he can whether solve his present question or cope with it successfully. He goes additional remarking that sometimes the process helps the private to accept unchangeable situation for example, loss of dearly loved ones and to some extent change it in its favour rather than letting himself be overcome by the situation. Guez and Allen (2000) perceive that it is difficult to think of a particular definition of counseling. This is because definitions of counseling depend on theoretical orientation. Counseling is a learning-oriented process, which occurs normally in an interactive relationship, with the aim of helping a person learn more about the self, and to use such comprehension to enable the person to come to be an Effective member of society. Counseling is a process by means of which the helper expresses care and concern towards the person with a problem, and facilitates that person's personal increase and brings about change straight through self-knowledge. Counseling is a relationship in the middle of a involved person and a person with a need. This relationship is normally person-to-person, although sometimes it may involve more than two people. It is designed to help citizen to understand and interpret their views, and learn how to reach their self-determined goals straight through meaningful, well-informed choices, and straight through the resolution of emotional or interpersonal problems. It can be seen from these definitions that counseling can have distinct meanings.

3.0. Origin of advice and Counseling convention in Pre-Colonial Era

Counseling in Tanzania in distinct forms and with distinct interpretations, has existed in societies for a long time before colonial era. The differences and contradictions in present-day, have their origin in the group and historical troops that have shaped modern culture. In Tanzania citizen in all societies, and at all times, have experienced emotional or psychological distress and behavioural problems. In each culture, there have been well established ways and methods of helping individuals with their problems. However, there are no sufficient written sources about the origin of advice and counseling convention in Tanzanian schools. But like other places before colonial era there were superior unique elements which held the societies together in their livelihood. The elements contain the extended house system, along with the clan and the tribe, chieftaincy, taboos, varied forms of initiation and close links with ancestors and elders.

The village is the focal point of society. While each one of these elements is important, only a few are used to interpret the role of advice and counseling in present-day Tanzanian societies. Basically, original chiefs had many roles which included serving as a symbol of authority and as a regulator. Since these roles were appropriate and respected by all, there was a clear direction in the day-to-day affairs of society. The elders, the chief included, were a important source of advice and counseling for boys and girls. In most cases, the chiefs were regarded as a vital link in the middle of ancestors and the present generation. This link was strengthened by the rituals, ceremonies and taboos attached to them. It was easy to guide and counsel the young, since the rituals or ceremonies were also aimed at preparation for adult roles in society. The extended family, the clan, and the village, made society supportive. No private regarded him/herself as alien. Counseling was effortlessly sought and provided. The forms of advice and counseling involved were given advice and sharing wisdom.

4.0. The Developments of advice and Counseling Practices in Tanzanian Schools

4.1. advice and Counseling Practices in Tanzanian Schools Trends

In realizing this perhaps, since we are reasoning of the concepts in school setting, we should think the meaning of counseling in instruction discipline. One could think that the definitions given above on the term advice and counseling, their meaning can be directed to instruction grounds and now give the meaning correctly. Guez and Allen (2000) pointed out that a term educational counseling was first coined by Truman Kelley in 1914 in Makinde, (1988), educational counseling is a process of rendering services to pupils who need aid in production decisions about important aspects of their education, such as the selection of courses and studies, decisions with regard to interests and ability, and choices of college and high school. Educational counseling increases a pupil's knowledge of educational opportunities.

The ever growing complexity of society in Tanzania, coupled with group problems like Hiv/Aids and the rapid development of science and technology, place heavy demands on education. The school, as an important group institution, was required to adapt speedily to changing patterns, and help prepare citizens for tomorrow's challenges. That is where advice and counseling in the educational principles should help boys and girls alike, to organize their capacities to the full. These contain intellectual, social, corporeal and moral capacities. This help is of the most important in Tanzania as long as the history and age of instruction provision and in its systems found today.

Guidance and counseling practices development in Tanzanian schools can be traced back from the time when vocational instruction was emerging right at the colonial period. In the process of establishing counseling services in Tanzania, there was a need to first understand the underlying factors that influence people's beliefs and perceptions about such practices. However, this is understanding that was not taken in to observation at the time and it may be up to recent time. It is especially important to understand the economic, socio-political, religious beliefs, customs and traditions, and cultural changes that are present in distinct regions of the country. Young citizen should be understood within this context, but also within the paradoxical situation of having to face the original and the modern world, but this is a big challenge to Tanzania and many developing African countries. During colonial period there were some form of vocational advice under the occupation advice and it was administered by occupation masters. But the occupation masters who were premium by the head of schools had no professional training in vocational guidance. In fact the duty was miniature to helping students fill out employment forms and writing letters of application. In the missionary schools vocational advice was confined to religious services. The teachers who were normally 'fathers', pastors, or reverends guided and trained spiritually inclined youths to come to be sisters, brothers, fathers and pastors upon their completion of formal education.

Apart of what could be done in schools in Tanzania, advice and counseling was more or less a underground house affair. Parents and relatives counseled their children on all matters of life management and question solving. It is true that in many families the duty of general advice was the original duty of senior members of the family, father, mother, uncle, aunt, and grandparents. In case of serious personal or house problems, counseling was done by a specially organized by the society as a competent in handling that specific problem. This is done without any knowledge obtained from formal or informal school principles but rather straight through caress and age wise straight through collected wisdom. This kind of early form of counseling from school setting and society helped the young to be brought into the absorbing image of living in the future to the society.

4.2. advice and Counseling Practices in Tanzanian Schools in Post-colonial era

In any literatures and sources, advice and counseling in instruction sector in Tanzania and some other African countries is regarded as the youngest discipline. This is evidenced by First International discussion on Guidance, Counseling and Youth development in Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya from 22nd to 26th April, 2002 which pointed out that the Guidance, Counseling and Youth development Programme was initiated in Africa in April 1994, following the First Pan African discussion on the instruction of Girls that was held in Ouagadougou in 1993. It is designed to introduce or strengthen advice and counseling in African countries. It focuses on capacity building in the countries involved and provides training at both regional and national levels on issues of advice and counseling of schools and colleges.

What we can call professional advice and counseling in Tanzania schools begin in the year 1984 following the National October 1984 Arusha Conference, where advice and counseling services were endorsed by the government as and integral part of the country's instruction principles (Biswalo, 1996). The aim of the discussion is to organize systematic criteria for secondary schools students' advice and counseling. Students were then advised, guided and counseled on matters with regard to their job selection and learner placement for additional education. This job was assigned to occupation masters and mistresses as explained below, however, there were no sufficient advice and counseling personnel not only in the responsible ministry but also in the schools.

Guidance and Counseling is now becoming slowly institutionalized and spread in educational institutions. Schools, for example, have to a large extent taken over the task of providing psychological reserve to boys and girls. However Biswalo (1996) comments that in Tanzania policies pertinent to advice and counseling is still lacking. The Ministry of Education, however, has somehow tried to institutionalize the services within the instruction principles by appointing occupation masters and mistresses. He continued saying that the personnel are charged with the responsibility of advising heads of secondary schools with regard to students job selection and learner placement for additional education; to try and help students understands and organize interest in appropriate jobs or additional instruction or training; to asses the students talents and capabilities and to encourage them to pursue careers or additional instruction best great to them and to help students solve their personal problems which may influence their general strengthen in school.

This is an impossible and realistic burden on these untrained personnel. It reflects the apathy of course and decision makers with regard to the new field of advice and counseling in schools; the power of the myth of planned manpower in which occupation advice is erroneously regarded as redundant and the gross lack of trained personnel who would provide Effective advice and counseling services in schools. It is unfortunate that even after the National October 1984 Arusha discussion on the strengthening of instruction in Tanzania, where advice and counseling services were endorsed by the government as and integral part of the country's instruction system, the services are to-date still patchy and ineffective in Tanzania's educational institutions. advice and counseling in this manner is discussed by distinct scholars in primary, secondary and tertiary instruction levels together.

5.0. advice and Counseling Practices in original and Secondary Schools

In original school levels in Tanzania in actual fact there were and are no specified pupils' teacher-counselors. However, the operation is left to teachers themselves to decree what is to be done since there is no programmed or time-tabled operation with regard to advice and counseling. Teachers are left to use part of the teaching to convention advice and counseling in and surface the classroom although not all teachers have gone teacher-counselor training. As children enter school they need orientation on school itself, its environment, school society and the curriculum to motivate and organize definite attitude toward learning and school society as well (Biswalo, 1996). As the pupils grow older and pass straight through distinct grades they need to be directed in learning skills, overcome learning difficulties and other school related problems. But this operation is not performed systematically in original schools in Tanzania.

In the case of secondary schools till to-date there is also insufficient programmed or time-tabled principles of guiding and counseling students. In some cases this duty is left to discipline masters and sometimes to class masters and head of schools. At secondary school level, students would seek educational opportunities, information of all kinds and any other help pertinent to educational pursuits. These needs are catered to by educational advice and counseling (ibid). At this level students are helped with branch choice, study techniques and tests and examination. Biswalo (1996) pointed out that sometimes During branch choice, pride of placing as many students as possible in prestigious streams, such as science, takes precedence over actual abilities, interests and aptitudes of students. He said this unfortunate situation has been born out of the lack of genuine educational advice and counseling services in secondary schools.

The school has an important role to play in preparation pupils for continued secondary education, paid employment, self-employment and life in the community, as clearly set out by the Ministry of instruction in the objectives for its secondary curriculum. Maybe uniquely, there would be total bargain among pupils, teachers and parents over the relative emphasis a definite schools settled on the preparation for additional education, with its focus on scholastic knowledge and the pursuit of success in the national examinations. That is, the secondary schools where counseling is not well performed settled miniature emphasis on citizenship and the development of a responsible attitude to life in the society at the local, regional or national level and employment opportunities. However, what is de-emphasized is the informal sector along with self-employment but the emphasized is employment in the formal sector with its implied emphasis on white collar jobs.

5.1. Vocational, occupation advice and Counseling

In Tanzania teachers have the capacity to directly influence their pupils' selection of careers. The achievements and attitudes of pupils have been shown to be related to the characteristics and achievements of their teachers (World Bank, 1995; quoted in Nyutu, P.N. & Norman C.G. 2008). However, the influence of the school depends on the formal interactions and transportation which take place in the middle of teachers and pupils in the classroom whereas television and radio, act straight through the informal interactions pupils have with these media. The influence of parents and siblings is straight through both formal and informal means.

That is in most cases in Tanzania and may be other states where advice and counseling is rarely done in schools; parents play the big role to influence on their children's selection of careers. Others who have lower level careers i.e. Teachers, clerks, drivers, personal secretaries, soldiers etc. Do not anticipate their children 'following in their footsteps' because for the children who are able to study to higher level sometimes saw these jobs as narrow and lacking in interest. However it is recommend that parents' occupation might have influenced their children's selection of careers, but this happened to children who have generic skills useful in such jobs, and a few may have job skills relevant to those jobs. Entrance to information straight through the media and other forms of technology is giving young citizen aspirations that, for the most part, cannot be satisfied in their own environment. Choices have to be made and young citizen must gain the skills to assess situations and make informed decisions. There is no longer a natural, understandable order from birth to adulthood for the Tanzanian young.

Vocational advice at secondary school levels is in case,granted but in very few among others because of shortages of school or vocational trained counselors. For those lucky schools with these kinds of counselors, students are helped but vocational counseling is not emphasized because most pupils, teachers and of course parents push students to make long range plans of study so that to prepare well for the envisaged careers. These counselors plan with school administrators and teachers to provide appropriate class placement for students with extra abilities or disabilities for course selection by students.

5.2. Tertiary Level

The tertiary level students are in case,granted with orientation and other educational advice and counseling. In Tanzania tertiary level have at least fulfilled the need of having great students' counselors for both psychological and academics, though they are few in number. Here counselors play a big role in compiling comprehensive information on all aspects of the careers related to the training offered in the institution. Counselors sometimes incorporate with management or practicum branch to organize field practices for students and even more rarely might contacts with relevant employing agencies (Biswalo, 1996).
6.0. understanding on advice and Counseling in Tanzania

According to the explore by Sima (2004), professional counseling is yet to be recognized as a stand-alone profession in Tanzania and in many African countries. Nevertheless, the advent and setting of Hiv/Aids in the country has strengthened the base for counseling. This is particularly because of the multifaceted nature of the Hiv/Aids pandemic whose attention, unlike other human diseases, goes beyond the prerogatives of the medical profession. Thus, counseling is perceived as a crucial avenue for prevention of Hiv infection straight through provision of sufficient and relevant information, and for group and psychological reserve of citizen infected and affected by the pandemic. Ibid continued saying that since the emergence of the pandemic in the country, a amount of non-governmental organizations have been offering counseling services however, there is lack of clarity on the type and nature of counseling services offered by these organization. The nature and characteristics of counseling clients also remain fuzzy.

In Tanzania the professional counseling as aforesaid is relatively a new phenomenon. Outwater (1995) quoted in Sima (2004) comments that before Hiv/Aids epidemic, there was no formal counseling aid in Tanzanian hospitals, no professional counselors and no formal principles for training counselors. There was a need to fill this gap by training as many counselors as possible to provide optimal care for Aids patients and their relatives (Nacp, 1989; quoted in ibid). Since then many para-professional counselors have been trained in basic knowledge and skills of counseling. Currently there are many counseling centers working not only on Hiv/Aids related problems but also distinct problems affecting Tanzanians. However, as counseling became favorite with the advent of Hiv/Aids, many citizen assume that it is only meant for citizen infected and affected by Hiv/Aids and shy away from it for fear of being labeled (Sima, 2002; quoted in Sima 2004).

7.0. Problems and Challenges

The Tanzanian government have not yet formulated in the instruction course issues pertaining advice and counseling in spite of the crucially and necessity in schools. Biswalo (1996) pointed out that in Tanzania policies pertinent to advice and counseling is still lacking. He continued saying that efforts directed towards fulfilling advice and counseling needs are apparently thwarted by any difficulties along with financial resources to reserve the even established tiny counseling activities in any schools.

In Tanzania till today counseling is relatively new phenomenon. There are no sufficient great counselors in schools and other instruction institutions. However, there are miniature amount of great counselors, they are whether not utilized well in schools or they are engaged in other activities rather than what they are trained for. Some of school counselors are also teachers and they are fully occupied with teaching responsibilities. More surprisingly counseling is perceived as a crucial avenue for only prevention of Hiv infection straight through provision of sufficient and relevant information, and for group and psychological reserve of citizen infected and affected by the Hiv/Aids (Sima, 2004).

There is slow increase of advice and counseling in educational systems attributed to lack of funds, training facilities, and high turnover of advice counselors to green pastures and in adequately trained counselors. For instance in many schools they lack counseling offices, trained teacher-counselors and counseling equipments. In terms of funds there are varied options that can be explored to alleviate financial constraints. extra schools on profit of parents in need can advent non-governmental organizations.

The absence of solid professional counseling relationship in Tanzania to set standards for the appropriate convention is another challenge (Nwoye, 2008). Also insufficient availability of professional advisor training programs in Tanzanian colleges and universities is another contributing challenge.

There are no efforts to organize counseling curriculum in secondary schools and colleges and advice and counseling courses in the universities. advice curriculum and responsive services can then be structured to address the five content areas, namely human relationships, occupation development, group values, self development, and learning skills. A advice curriculum could be taught to students at distinct levels or in small groups to address issues that are similar to them. For advice and counseling programs to be Effective in Tanzania, trained professionals should be employed to manage and offer services in schools. Such professionals should also be in case,granted with relevant facilities and structural support. At the same time, universities and teacher training institutions will have to organize and organize programs that train professional school counselors and other advice personnel.

There is still insufficient aid in higher instruction institutions to enable students achieves their occupation aspirations. However, students today indicate a higher need for occupation advice than students in the past decade. Students may therefore be encountering an increased need to gain relevant occupation information that will enable them seek good paid jobs. Many schools have in the past appointed some teachers as occupation masters without providing them with the important training and facilities for occupation guidance. Such occupation masters normally assume that all students will end up in universities and only focus on helping students perfect university application forms and no more. It is the high time for the government to set and implement the course that will heighten advice and counseling from original schools to the tertiary level and in turn will organize programs that train professional school counselors and other advice personnel.

8.0. Conclusion

Guidance and counseling sought to prepare pupils in their instruction agenda to enter into the world of appropriate work by linking the school curriculum to employment. For the school to be successful in this endeavor, subjects should be taught at a pleasant and favorable environment and should be made relevant and absorbing to the pupils. another factor that needs to be thought about is the recruitment of competent teachers capable of guiding and counseling learners in relating what they teach to the job market. What is taught and how it is taught can have great influence on the interest and perception of learners. In Tanzania the spirit to plan and use advice and counseling services in the Effective development and utilization of their respective young human resources is evidently strong. However, as Biswalo (1996) said the efforts directed towards fulfilling this need are apparently thwarted by any difficulties. It appears total and enlightened commitment on the part of course and decision makers is important and should be definitely surmount the problems.

The emergence of occupation development in western countries as a organize suggests that it may be an important area in developing country like Tanzania where students need assistance; students particularly need aid in selecting colleges and courses. To this end, the schools should offer a occupation advice and counseling programme under the able leadership of great school counselors.

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